Respiratory Rate

Why Respiratory Rate Matters

Your respiratory rate—how many breaths you take per minute at rest—is more than just a number. It reflects the coordination between your lungs, heart, and nervous system, and offers a real-time snapshot of how efficiently your body is delivering oxygen and removing carbon dioxide. These two gases are central to cellular energy production and pH balance, so even small changes in breathing rate can ripple across multiple systems.

A typical resting respiratory rate for adults falls between 12 and 20 breaths per minute. Breathing is primarily controlled by your brainstem, specifically the medulla oblongata and pons, which constantly monitor levels of carbon dioxide in the blood. When CO₂ rises, your brain signals the respiratory muscles—mainly the diaphragm and intercostal muscles—to increase the rate and depth of breathing. This feedback loop ensures you maintain proper oxygenation and acid–base balance.

Deviations from the normal range can indicate a variety of physiological or pathological states. A persistently elevated respiratory rate might signal an underlying infection, lung disease, heart failure, or even metabolic acidosis. On the other hand, individuals with high cardiovascular fitness often have lower resting rates, thanks to stronger respiratory muscles and more efficient oxygen exchange.

Even psychological factors like anxiety or panic can influence respiratory rate, leading to rapid, shallow breathing that may worsen symptoms. Because your respiratory rhythm is so tightly regulated and responsive to both internal and external stressors, changes—however small—are worth paying attention to. It’s one of the body’s most sensitive indicators of health and recovery.

Why Respiratory Rate Matters

Your respiratory rate—how many breaths you take per minute at rest—is more than just a number. It reflects the coordination between your lungs, heart, and nervous system, and offers a real-time snapshot of how efficiently your body is delivering oxygen and removing carbon dioxide. These two gases are central to cellular energy production and pH balance, so even small changes in breathing rate can ripple across multiple systems.

A typical resting respiratory rate for adults falls between 12 and 20 breaths per minute. Breathing is primarily controlled by your brainstem, specifically the medulla oblongata and pons, which constantly monitor levels of carbon dioxide in the blood. When CO₂ rises, your brain signals the respiratory muscles—mainly the diaphragm and intercostal muscles—to increase the rate and depth of breathing. This feedback loop ensures you maintain proper oxygenation and acid–base balance.

Deviations from the normal range can indicate a variety of physiological or pathological states. A persistently elevated respiratory rate might signal an underlying infection, lung disease, heart failure, or even metabolic acidosis. On the other hand, individuals with high cardiovascular fitness often have lower resting rates, thanks to stronger respiratory muscles and more efficient oxygen exchange.

Even psychological factors like anxiety or panic can influence respiratory rate, leading to rapid, shallow breathing that may worsen symptoms. Because your respiratory rhythm is so tightly regulated and responsive to both internal and external stressors, changes—however small—are worth paying attention to. It’s one of the body’s most sensitive indicators of health and recovery.

Why Respiratory Rate Matters

Your respiratory rate—how many breaths you take per minute at rest—is more than just a number. It reflects the coordination between your lungs, heart, and nervous system, and offers a real-time snapshot of how efficiently your body is delivering oxygen and removing carbon dioxide. These two gases are central to cellular energy production and pH balance, so even small changes in breathing rate can ripple across multiple systems.

A typical resting respiratory rate for adults falls between 12 and 20 breaths per minute. Breathing is primarily controlled by your brainstem, specifically the medulla oblongata and pons, which constantly monitor levels of carbon dioxide in the blood. When CO₂ rises, your brain signals the respiratory muscles—mainly the diaphragm and intercostal muscles—to increase the rate and depth of breathing. This feedback loop ensures you maintain proper oxygenation and acid–base balance.

Deviations from the normal range can indicate a variety of physiological or pathological states. A persistently elevated respiratory rate might signal an underlying infection, lung disease, heart failure, or even metabolic acidosis. On the other hand, individuals with high cardiovascular fitness often have lower resting rates, thanks to stronger respiratory muscles and more efficient oxygen exchange.

Even psychological factors like anxiety or panic can influence respiratory rate, leading to rapid, shallow breathing that may worsen symptoms. Because your respiratory rhythm is so tightly regulated and responsive to both internal and external stressors, changes—however small—are worth paying attention to. It’s one of the body’s most sensitive indicators of health and recovery.

Why Respiratory Rate Matters

Your respiratory rate—how many breaths you take per minute at rest—is more than just a number. It reflects the coordination between your lungs, heart, and nervous system, and offers a real-time snapshot of how efficiently your body is delivering oxygen and removing carbon dioxide. These two gases are central to cellular energy production and pH balance, so even small changes in breathing rate can ripple across multiple systems.

A typical resting respiratory rate for adults falls between 12 and 20 breaths per minute. Breathing is primarily controlled by your brainstem, specifically the medulla oblongata and pons, which constantly monitor levels of carbon dioxide in the blood. When CO₂ rises, your brain signals the respiratory muscles—mainly the diaphragm and intercostal muscles—to increase the rate and depth of breathing. This feedback loop ensures you maintain proper oxygenation and acid–base balance.

Deviations from the normal range can indicate a variety of physiological or pathological states. A persistently elevated respiratory rate might signal an underlying infection, lung disease, heart failure, or even metabolic acidosis. On the other hand, individuals with high cardiovascular fitness often have lower resting rates, thanks to stronger respiratory muscles and more efficient oxygen exchange.

Even psychological factors like anxiety or panic can influence respiratory rate, leading to rapid, shallow breathing that may worsen symptoms. Because your respiratory rhythm is so tightly regulated and responsive to both internal and external stressors, changes—however small—are worth paying attention to. It’s one of the body’s most sensitive indicators of health and recovery.

How Respiratory Rate Reflects Physical Health

A healthy adult typically breathes between 12 to 20 times per minute at rest. However, your fitness level, environment, and physical health status can shift this baseline.

Athletes, for instance, often have a lower resting respiratory rate—a sign of greater efficiency in their cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Their bodies extract more oxygen per breath, reducing the need for rapid breathing. Similarly, regular aerobic exercise can strengthen the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, enhancing lung capacity and reducing resting RR over time.

Environmental stressors like high altitude or poor air quality can cause your RR to rise, as the body compensates for lower oxygen availability or irritation in the lungs. And when you're unwell—say with a fever, respiratory infection, or chronic conditions like asthma or COPD—your RR may increase to meet heightened oxygen demands or counteract impaired lung function.

Even medications can influence your breathing. For instance, opioids or sedatives may suppress respiratory drive, lowering your RR, sometimes to dangerously low levels.

How to improve your respiratory rate through physical fitness:

Incorporate aerobic training to increase lung efficiency.
Practice breathing exercises (like diaphragmatic or box breathing) to train slower, deeper breaths.
Avoid smoking and pollutants that damage lung tissue.
Seek medical attention if your respiratory rate is persistently elevated or unusually low without obvious cause.

Tracking your RR over time can help you identify trends and catch early signs of physical distress before other symptoms appear.

How Respiratory Rate Reflects Physical Health

A healthy adult typically breathes between 12 to 20 times per minute at rest. However, your fitness level, environment, and physical health status can shift this baseline.

Athletes, for instance, often have a lower resting respiratory rate—a sign of greater efficiency in their cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Their bodies extract more oxygen per breath, reducing the need for rapid breathing. Similarly, regular aerobic exercise can strengthen the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, enhancing lung capacity and reducing resting RR over time.

Environmental stressors like high altitude or poor air quality can cause your RR to rise, as the body compensates for lower oxygen availability or irritation in the lungs. And when you're unwell—say with a fever, respiratory infection, or chronic conditions like asthma or COPD—your RR may increase to meet heightened oxygen demands or counteract impaired lung function.

Even medications can influence your breathing. For instance, opioids or sedatives may suppress respiratory drive, lowering your RR, sometimes to dangerously low levels.

How to improve your respiratory rate through physical fitness:

Incorporate aerobic training to increase lung efficiency.
Practice breathing exercises (like diaphragmatic or box breathing) to train slower, deeper breaths.
Avoid smoking and pollutants that damage lung tissue.
Seek medical attention if your respiratory rate is persistently elevated or unusually low without obvious cause.

Tracking your RR over time can help you identify trends and catch early signs of physical distress before other symptoms appear.

How Respiratory Rate Reflects Physical Health

A healthy adult typically breathes between 12 to 20 times per minute at rest. However, your fitness level, environment, and physical health status can shift this baseline.

Athletes, for instance, often have a lower resting respiratory rate—a sign of greater efficiency in their cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Their bodies extract more oxygen per breath, reducing the need for rapid breathing. Similarly, regular aerobic exercise can strengthen the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, enhancing lung capacity and reducing resting RR over time.

Environmental stressors like high altitude or poor air quality can cause your RR to rise, as the body compensates for lower oxygen availability or irritation in the lungs. And when you're unwell—say with a fever, respiratory infection, or chronic conditions like asthma or COPD—your RR may increase to meet heightened oxygen demands or counteract impaired lung function.

Even medications can influence your breathing. For instance, opioids or sedatives may suppress respiratory drive, lowering your RR, sometimes to dangerously low levels.

How to improve your respiratory rate through physical fitness:

Incorporate aerobic training to increase lung efficiency.
Practice breathing exercises (like diaphragmatic or box breathing) to train slower, deeper breaths.
Avoid smoking and pollutants that damage lung tissue.
Seek medical attention if your respiratory rate is persistently elevated or unusually low without obvious cause.

Tracking your RR over time can help you identify trends and catch early signs of physical distress before other symptoms appear.

How Respiratory Rate Reflects Physical Health

A healthy adult typically breathes between 12 to 20 times per minute at rest. However, your fitness level, environment, and physical health status can shift this baseline.

Athletes, for instance, often have a lower resting respiratory rate—a sign of greater efficiency in their cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Their bodies extract more oxygen per breath, reducing the need for rapid breathing. Similarly, regular aerobic exercise can strengthen the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, enhancing lung capacity and reducing resting RR over time.

Environmental stressors like high altitude or poor air quality can cause your RR to rise, as the body compensates for lower oxygen availability or irritation in the lungs. And when you're unwell—say with a fever, respiratory infection, or chronic conditions like asthma or COPD—your RR may increase to meet heightened oxygen demands or counteract impaired lung function.

Even medications can influence your breathing. For instance, opioids or sedatives may suppress respiratory drive, lowering your RR, sometimes to dangerously low levels.

How to improve your respiratory rate through physical fitness:

Incorporate aerobic training to increase lung efficiency.
Practice breathing exercises (like diaphragmatic or box breathing) to train slower, deeper breaths.
Avoid smoking and pollutants that damage lung tissue.
Seek medical attention if your respiratory rate is persistently elevated or unusually low without obvious cause.

Tracking your RR over time can help you identify trends and catch early signs of physical distress before other symptoms appear.

How Respiratory Rate Reflects Mental Health

Beyond the physical, your breathing pattern is tightly linked to your emotional and psychological state. Your respiratory rate (RR) is often one of the first things to change under stress or anxiety.

When you're feeling anxious, overwhelmed, or under threat, your breathing naturally becomes faster and shallower—a reflex wired into your nervous system. This is part of the fight-or-flight response, your body’s way of mobilising resources in the face of danger. Your brain sends signals to speed up your breath to flood the bloodstream with oxygen, preparing your muscles for action.

The problem is that in today’s world, this response can be triggered by non-life-threatening stressors like work pressure, relationship tension, or even doomscrolling late at night. Rapid breathing can then create a feedback loop: fast, shallow breaths increase carbon dioxide loss, which can lead to lightheadedness, tingling, or chest tightness—physical sensations that your brain may interpret as danger signals, heightening anxiety further.

Even more, this pattern affects your heart rate. When breathing becomes erratic, it often triggers sympathetic nervous system activation, which elevates heart rate. A fast-beating heart is also a hallmark of panic and emotional distress, and just feeling your heart race can make you more anxious—a phenomenon known as interoceptive amplification. In essence, the body and mind start amplifying each other’s stress signals.

But the opposite is also true. When you slow your breathing, you can slow your heart rate and interrupt the stress cycle. This taps into your parasympathetic nervous system—the “rest and digest” mode—which signals safety to your brain and body.

How to improve your respiratory rate through mental fitness:

Build a daily breath awareness practice—just 5–10 minutes of focusing on slow, deep breathing can retrain your nervous system.
Use paced breathing techniques like 4-7-8 or box breathing to regain calm during moments of anxiety.
Practice mindfulness or meditation, which helps build emotional regulation and anchors attention in the present.
Engage in movement-based practices like yoga or tai chi, which integrate physical grounding with breath control.

Maintain consistent sleep hygiene, as poor sleep increases baseline stress and dysregulates breathing during the day.

How Respiratory Rate Reflects Mental Health

Beyond the physical, your breathing pattern is tightly linked to your emotional and psychological state. Your respiratory rate (RR) is often one of the first things to change under stress or anxiety.

When you're feeling anxious, overwhelmed, or under threat, your breathing naturally becomes faster and shallower—a reflex wired into your nervous system. This is part of the fight-or-flight response, your body’s way of mobilising resources in the face of danger. Your brain sends signals to speed up your breath to flood the bloodstream with oxygen, preparing your muscles for action.

The problem is that in today’s world, this response can be triggered by non-life-threatening stressors like work pressure, relationship tension, or even doomscrolling late at night. Rapid breathing can then create a feedback loop: fast, shallow breaths increase carbon dioxide loss, which can lead to lightheadedness, tingling, or chest tightness—physical sensations that your brain may interpret as danger signals, heightening anxiety further.

Even more, this pattern affects your heart rate. When breathing becomes erratic, it often triggers sympathetic nervous system activation, which elevates heart rate. A fast-beating heart is also a hallmark of panic and emotional distress, and just feeling your heart race can make you more anxious—a phenomenon known as interoceptive amplification. In essence, the body and mind start amplifying each other’s stress signals.

But the opposite is also true. When you slow your breathing, you can slow your heart rate and interrupt the stress cycle. This taps into your parasympathetic nervous system—the “rest and digest” mode—which signals safety to your brain and body.

How to improve your respiratory rate through mental fitness:

Build a daily breath awareness practice—just 5–10 minutes of focusing on slow, deep breathing can retrain your nervous system.
Use paced breathing techniques like 4-7-8 or box breathing to regain calm during moments of anxiety.
Practice mindfulness or meditation, which helps build emotional regulation and anchors attention in the present.
Engage in movement-based practices like yoga or tai chi, which integrate physical grounding with breath control.

Maintain consistent sleep hygiene, as poor sleep increases baseline stress and dysregulates breathing during the day.

How Respiratory Rate Reflects Mental Health

Beyond the physical, your breathing pattern is tightly linked to your emotional and psychological state. Your respiratory rate (RR) is often one of the first things to change under stress or anxiety.

When you're feeling anxious, overwhelmed, or under threat, your breathing naturally becomes faster and shallower—a reflex wired into your nervous system. This is part of the fight-or-flight response, your body’s way of mobilising resources in the face of danger. Your brain sends signals to speed up your breath to flood the bloodstream with oxygen, preparing your muscles for action.

The problem is that in today’s world, this response can be triggered by non-life-threatening stressors like work pressure, relationship tension, or even doomscrolling late at night. Rapid breathing can then create a feedback loop: fast, shallow breaths increase carbon dioxide loss, which can lead to lightheadedness, tingling, or chest tightness—physical sensations that your brain may interpret as danger signals, heightening anxiety further.

Even more, this pattern affects your heart rate. When breathing becomes erratic, it often triggers sympathetic nervous system activation, which elevates heart rate. A fast-beating heart is also a hallmark of panic and emotional distress, and just feeling your heart race can make you more anxious—a phenomenon known as interoceptive amplification. In essence, the body and mind start amplifying each other’s stress signals.

But the opposite is also true. When you slow your breathing, you can slow your heart rate and interrupt the stress cycle. This taps into your parasympathetic nervous system—the “rest and digest” mode—which signals safety to your brain and body.

How to improve your respiratory rate through mental fitness:

Build a daily breath awareness practice—just 5–10 minutes of focusing on slow, deep breathing can retrain your nervous system.
Use paced breathing techniques like 4-7-8 or box breathing to regain calm during moments of anxiety.
Practice mindfulness or meditation, which helps build emotional regulation and anchors attention in the present.
Engage in movement-based practices like yoga or tai chi, which integrate physical grounding with breath control.

Maintain consistent sleep hygiene, as poor sleep increases baseline stress and dysregulates breathing during the day.

How Respiratory Rate Reflects Mental Health

Beyond the physical, your breathing pattern is tightly linked to your emotional and psychological state. Your respiratory rate (RR) is often one of the first things to change under stress or anxiety.

When you're feeling anxious, overwhelmed, or under threat, your breathing naturally becomes faster and shallower—a reflex wired into your nervous system. This is part of the fight-or-flight response, your body’s way of mobilising resources in the face of danger. Your brain sends signals to speed up your breath to flood the bloodstream with oxygen, preparing your muscles for action.

The problem is that in today’s world, this response can be triggered by non-life-threatening stressors like work pressure, relationship tension, or even doomscrolling late at night. Rapid breathing can then create a feedback loop: fast, shallow breaths increase carbon dioxide loss, which can lead to lightheadedness, tingling, or chest tightness—physical sensations that your brain may interpret as danger signals, heightening anxiety further.

Even more, this pattern affects your heart rate. When breathing becomes erratic, it often triggers sympathetic nervous system activation, which elevates heart rate. A fast-beating heart is also a hallmark of panic and emotional distress, and just feeling your heart race can make you more anxious—a phenomenon known as interoceptive amplification. In essence, the body and mind start amplifying each other’s stress signals.

But the opposite is also true. When you slow your breathing, you can slow your heart rate and interrupt the stress cycle. This taps into your parasympathetic nervous system—the “rest and digest” mode—which signals safety to your brain and body.

How to improve your respiratory rate through mental fitness:

Build a daily breath awareness practice—just 5–10 minutes of focusing on slow, deep breathing can retrain your nervous system.
Use paced breathing techniques like 4-7-8 or box breathing to regain calm during moments of anxiety.
Practice mindfulness or meditation, which helps build emotional regulation and anchors attention in the present.
Engage in movement-based practices like yoga or tai chi, which integrate physical grounding with breath control.

Maintain consistent sleep hygiene, as poor sleep increases baseline stress and dysregulates breathing during the day.

Get started

Understanding Your Results

Wearables estimate RR primarily by analysing subtle chest movements, heart rate variability, and sometimes using blood flow signals detected through the skin (PPG) signals.

Typical resting respiratory rate for adults (breaths per minute):

<12: Below normal; may indicate respiratory depression or high fitness
12-20: Normal resting range
21-24: Mildly elevated; may indicate stress, mild illness
>24: Elevated; possible respiratory distress or infection

Respiratory rate naturally fluctuates throughout the sleep cycle, tending to slow during deep sleep when the body is in its most restful state, and rising slightly during REM sleep due to increased brain activity and dream-related arousal. These variations are normal, but sudden spikes or persistently elevated respiratory rates—especially when accompanied by symptoms like shortness of breath or chest pain—should be taken seriously and evaluated by a healthcare professional.Rather than focusing on a single measurement, it’s far more valuable to observe respiratory rate trends over time. Tracking your RR across several days or weeks provides a clearer picture of your baseline and can help identify subtle shifts that may reflect underlying changes in your health, recovery, or stress levels.

Understanding Your Results

Wearables estimate RR primarily by analysing subtle chest movements, heart rate variability, and sometimes using blood flow signals detected through the skin (PPG) signals.

Typical resting respiratory rate for adults (breaths per minute):

<12: Below normal; may indicate respiratory depression or high fitness
12-20: Normal resting range
21-24: Mildly elevated; may indicate stress, mild illness
>24: Elevated; possible respiratory distress or infection

Respiratory rate naturally fluctuates throughout the sleep cycle, tending to slow during deep sleep when the body is in its most restful state, and rising slightly during REM sleep due to increased brain activity and dream-related arousal. These variations are normal, but sudden spikes or persistently elevated respiratory rates—especially when accompanied by symptoms like shortness of breath or chest pain—should be taken seriously and evaluated by a healthcare professional.Rather than focusing on a single measurement, it’s far more valuable to observe respiratory rate trends over time. Tracking your RR across several days or weeks provides a clearer picture of your baseline and can help identify subtle shifts that may reflect underlying changes in your health, recovery, or stress levels.

Understanding Your Results

Wearables estimate RR primarily by analysing subtle chest movements, heart rate variability, and sometimes using blood flow signals detected through the skin (PPG) signals.

Typical resting respiratory rate for adults (breaths per minute):

<12: Below normal; may indicate respiratory depression or high fitness
12-20: Normal resting range
21-24: Mildly elevated; may indicate stress, mild illness
>24: Elevated; possible respiratory distress or infection

Respiratory rate naturally fluctuates throughout the sleep cycle, tending to slow during deep sleep when the body is in its most restful state, and rising slightly during REM sleep due to increased brain activity and dream-related arousal. These variations are normal, but sudden spikes or persistently elevated respiratory rates—especially when accompanied by symptoms like shortness of breath or chest pain—should be taken seriously and evaluated by a healthcare professional.Rather than focusing on a single measurement, it’s far more valuable to observe respiratory rate trends over time. Tracking your RR across several days or weeks provides a clearer picture of your baseline and can help identify subtle shifts that may reflect underlying changes in your health, recovery, or stress levels.

Understanding Your Results

Wearables estimate RR primarily by analysing subtle chest movements, heart rate variability, and sometimes using blood flow signals detected through the skin (PPG) signals.

Typical resting respiratory rate for adults (breaths per minute):

<12: Below normal; may indicate respiratory depression or high fitness
12-20: Normal resting range
21-24: Mildly elevated; may indicate stress, mild illness
>24: Elevated; possible respiratory distress or infection

Respiratory rate naturally fluctuates throughout the sleep cycle, tending to slow during deep sleep when the body is in its most restful state, and rising slightly during REM sleep due to increased brain activity and dream-related arousal. These variations are normal, but sudden spikes or persistently elevated respiratory rates—especially when accompanied by symptoms like shortness of breath or chest pain—should be taken seriously and evaluated by a healthcare professional.Rather than focusing on a single measurement, it’s far more valuable to observe respiratory rate trends over time. Tracking your RR across several days or weeks provides a clearer picture of your baseline and can help identify subtle shifts that may reflect underlying changes in your health, recovery, or stress levels.

The Takeaway

Respiratory rate is a vital, yet underappreciated, sign of your body’s health and fitness. Wearables have brought this metric into daily view, enabling early detection of illness and better understanding of stress and recovery.

Pay attention to your RR trends and support your respiratory health through fitness, breathing techniques, and stress reduction. Together, these habits help maintain efficient oxygen delivery, energy production, and overall wellness.

The Takeaway

Respiratory rate is a vital, yet underappreciated, sign of your body’s health and fitness. Wearables have brought this metric into daily view, enabling early detection of illness and better understanding of stress and recovery.

Pay attention to your RR trends and support your respiratory health through fitness, breathing techniques, and stress reduction. Together, these habits help maintain efficient oxygen delivery, energy production, and overall wellness.

The Takeaway

Respiratory rate is a vital, yet underappreciated, sign of your body’s health and fitness. Wearables have brought this metric into daily view, enabling early detection of illness and better understanding of stress and recovery.

Pay attention to your RR trends and support your respiratory health through fitness, breathing techniques, and stress reduction. Together, these habits help maintain efficient oxygen delivery, energy production, and overall wellness.

The Takeaway

Respiratory rate is a vital, yet underappreciated, sign of your body’s health and fitness. Wearables have brought this metric into daily view, enabling early detection of illness and better understanding of stress and recovery.

Pay attention to your RR trends and support your respiratory health through fitness, breathing techniques, and stress reduction. Together, these habits help maintain efficient oxygen delivery, energy production, and overall wellness.

References

Nestor, J. (2018). Breath: The New Science of a Lost Art. Riverhead Books.
Tobin, M.J. (1990). Respiratory monitoring in the intensive care unit. Chest, 97(4), 933–938.
Grossman, P., & Taylor, E.W. (2007). Toward understanding respiratory sinus arrhythmia: Relations to cardiac vagal tone, evolution and biobehavioral functions. Biological Psychology, 74(2), 263–285.
Bellani, G., et al. (2017). Non-invasive respiratory monitoring in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Medicine, 43(2), 178–187.

References

Nestor, J. (2018). Breath: The New Science of a Lost Art. Riverhead Books.
Tobin, M.J. (1990). Respiratory monitoring in the intensive care unit. Chest, 97(4), 933–938.
Grossman, P., & Taylor, E.W. (2007). Toward understanding respiratory sinus arrhythmia: Relations to cardiac vagal tone, evolution and biobehavioral functions. Biological Psychology, 74(2), 263–285.
Bellani, G., et al. (2017). Non-invasive respiratory monitoring in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Medicine, 43(2), 178–187.

References

Nestor, J. (2018). Breath: The New Science of a Lost Art. Riverhead Books.
Tobin, M.J. (1990). Respiratory monitoring in the intensive care unit. Chest, 97(4), 933–938.
Grossman, P., & Taylor, E.W. (2007). Toward understanding respiratory sinus arrhythmia: Relations to cardiac vagal tone, evolution and biobehavioral functions. Biological Psychology, 74(2), 263–285.
Bellani, G., et al. (2017). Non-invasive respiratory monitoring in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Medicine, 43(2), 178–187.

References

Nestor, J. (2018). Breath: The New Science of a Lost Art. Riverhead Books.
Tobin, M.J. (1990). Respiratory monitoring in the intensive care unit. Chest, 97(4), 933–938.
Grossman, P., & Taylor, E.W. (2007). Toward understanding respiratory sinus arrhythmia: Relations to cardiac vagal tone, evolution and biobehavioral functions. Biological Psychology, 74(2), 263–285.
Bellani, G., et al. (2017). Non-invasive respiratory monitoring in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Medicine, 43(2), 178–187.

Respiratory Rate